Psychological and neurological studies have investigated the use of cognitive maps in animals and in humans. These maps take many forms: using spatial maps, as an example, we can describe the layout of our home, drawing on our memories and can recall these from afar. In order to orientate ourselves geographically we might begin with a large scale map. This map serves to focus roughly on the desired location, a town for example. Then once we arrive at the town a street map allows us to identify our exact destination.

Alternately we might find our way from landmarks, remembering key characteristics which 'light' the way. Our recall may be hampered, however, the only previous visit having been at night. We might be forced to use the route itself, did I turn left here or right? Holistically speaking, although the world is round we use a 'flat earth' model when planning a car journey. This approach gets us from Lancashire to Cornwall, London to Paris. Astronauts, however, must solve their own problems!